ADVERB, CONJUNCTION, ETC
(KATA KETERANGAN, KATA PENGHUBUNG DLL)
So So That
Maka,
Sehingga Sehingga,
Supaya
Thought/Although Nevertheless
Walaupun
Demikian Walaupun Demikian
In Spite of This
In ThatCase
Kendatipun
Demikian Kalau Begitu
Other Wise Even
Kalau
Tidak Bahakan
In Fact As
A Matter of
Kenyataannya Kenyataannya
Fact Mostly Most
of…
Kebanyakan Sebagian Besara Dari
Meanwhile Maybe
Sementara
Itu Mungkin
Probably Perhaps
Barangkali Barangkali
At Least At
Once
Setidaknya,
Sedikitnya Sekaligus
At That Moment Fortunately
Pada
Saat Itu Untungnya
Unfortunately Directly
Sayangnya Secara
Langsun
In a Little While Suddenly
Sekali-Kali Tiba-Tiba
According To In Accordance With
Menurut Sesuai
Dengan
Willingly In
Time
Dengan
Sepenuh Hati Pada Waktu
On Time Up
To Now
Tepat
Waktu Sampai
Sekarang
Formerly Afterwards
Dulu Setelah
Itu
At Last In
the End
Akhirnya Akhirnya
Not At All Apart
From
Sama
Sekali Tidak Selain
Dari Pada
Whereas Seemly
Padahal,Sedangkan Ruapnya
Look Like Just
By Chance
Pupanya Kebetulan Saja
As If First of All
Seolah-Olah Pertama Kali
Nowadays From
Now On
Pada
Masa Sekarang Mulai
Sekarang
Steadily Occasionally
Terus
Menerus Kadang-Kadang
On and Off Once In A While
Kadang-Kadang Sekali-Kali
Every Other Day Generally
Dua
Hari Sekali Umumnya
Normally Regularly
Biasanya Secara Tetap
Lately Recently
Akhir-Akhir
Ini Baru-Baru
Ini
Finally Since
Akhirnya Sejak
Up To Present Time As Yet
Hingga
Sekarang Sampai
Sekarang
So Far the
Whole Day
Hingga
Sekarang Sepanjang
Harai
When I Was a Child As Soon AsKetika Saya Masih
Kecil Secepatnya
Later Two Years
Later
Yang
Akan Datang 2 Tahun Mendatang
By Next Year by
the End of This Year
Menjelang
Tahun Depan Menjelang Akhir Tahun Ini
COLLECTIVE
NOUN (KATA BENDA KUMPULAN)
A Packet of
Cigarette A Spoon Of Sugar
Sebungkus
rokok sesendok
gula
A Fleet of Car
A Box of Matches
sederet
mobil sekotak korek api
A Bunch of Flower A Glass Of Tea
Seikat
bunga segelas teh
A Cup of Coffee
A Plate of Rice
secangkir
kpi sepiring nasi
A Bottle of Oil A Bowl of
Soup
Sebotol minyak semangkok
soup
A Basket of Apple A Pinch of Sugar
sekeranjan
apel sejimpit
gula
A Bar of Chocolate A
Place Of
Cheese
Sepotong
coklat sepotong keju
A Pile Of Clothes A Pair Of Shoes
setumpuk
baju sepasang
sepatu
A Pair of Glasses A Stem of Flower
Sepasang
kaca mata
setangkai bunga
A Liter of Gasoline A Kilo of Rambutan
seliter
bensin sekilo
rambutan
A Ton of Corn A Slice of
Bread
Satu
ton jagung seiris
roti
A Dozen of
Glasses A Grain of Corn
selusin
gelas sebutir jagung
A Sheet of Paper A Staff of Teacher
Selembar
kertas sekelompok
guru
A Swarm of Bees An Army of Soldier
segerombolang
lebah
sepasukan tentara
A Tribe of Native Bonquet of Flower
Sekelompok
pribumi serangkai
bunga
A Suit Of
Clothes A Bundle Of Sticks
satu
stel baju sebundel
lidi
A Pile Of Stones A Collection F
Stamps
Setumpuk
batu sekoleksi
perangko
A Sheet Of Tools A Pack Of Cards
satu
set perkakas satu
pak kartu
A String Pearls A Band Of
Musician
sekalung
mutiara sekelompk
pemusik
A Crowd Of People A Suite Of Furniture
sekerumunang
orang
satu setel mabel
MEETINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Getting started
Let's get started.
We need to discuss . . .
We need to talk about . . .
We need to discuss . . .
We need to talk about . . .
Talking
about discussion items
The first thing we need to discuss is . . .
The first item on the agenda is . . .
The first thing on the list is . . .
First, we need to talk about . . .
The first item on the agenda is . . .
The first thing on the list is . . .
First, we need to talk about . . .
Presenting
Options
We have several alternatives:
We have two options:
We could either . . . or . . .
We have two options:
We could either . . . or . . .
Moving
on
Let's move on to Item 2.
Let's move on to the next topic.
We need to move on.
The next item (of business) is . . .
We need to go on to the next item.
Shall/Should we move on?
Let's move on to the next topic.
We need to move on.
The next item (of business) is . . .
We need to go on to the next item.
Shall/Should we move on?
Stalling
the Discussion
Before we move on, I think we should . . .
Wait a minute. We haven't discussed . . .
Don't you think we need to . . .
Not so fast. We haven't (yet) . . .
Wait a minute. We haven't discussed . . .
Don't you think we need to . . .
Not so fast. We haven't (yet) . . .
Asking
for Clarification
What do you mean by . . . .
I don't quite follow you.
I didn't get what you meant by . . .
Could you clarify that?
Could you elaborate on that?
I don't quite follow you.
I didn't get what you meant by . . .
Could you clarify that?
Could you elaborate on that?
Making
a Suggestion/Proposal
I think we should . . .
Maybe we should . . .
I suggest . . .
Why don't we . . .
How about . . .
We could . . .
Maybe we should . . .
I suggest . . .
Why don't we . . .
How about . . .
We could . . .
Giving
Feedback
(I think) that's a good idea.
You have a good point.
Good idea/point.
I agree.
You have a good point.
Good idea/point.
I agree.
I
disagree. I think . . .
Sorry. I don't agree with you.
You have a good point, but . . .
That's not such a good idea.
I don't think that's a good idea.
Sorry. I don't agree with you.
You have a good point, but . . .
That's not such a good idea.
I don't think that's a good idea.
Asking
for Opinions
What do you think, George?
What's your opinion on that, Martha?
Any thoughts on that?
Any ideas?
What's your opinion on that, Martha?
Any thoughts on that?
Any ideas?
Checking
for Consensus
Do we all agree (on that)?
Does everyone agree?
Does everyone agree?
Summarizing
In summary,
The conclusion is . . .
So, we've decided to . . .
We're going to . . . (then)
The conclusion is . . .
So, we've decided to . . .
We're going to . . . (then)
Closing
the meeting
That's all for today.
That's it then. (Informal)
The meeting is adjourned. (Very formal)
That's it then. (Informal)
The meeting is adjourned. (Very formal)
IDIOMS EXPRESSIONS
X
My mom really shouted at me for coming home
late.
a. gave me elephants
b. gave me evil
c. gave me an earful
a. gave me elephants
b. gave me evil
c. gave me an earful
X
The
two cowboys looked at each other and then walked on.
a. egged
b. entered
c. eyeballed
a. egged
b. entered
c. eyeballed
X
David is a really excellent golf
player.
a. mad
b. modern
c. mean
a. mad
b. modern
c. mean
SLANG WORDS
X
I
___ all about it in the morning newspaper.
a. read
b. red
a. read
b. red
X
Make
a ___ turn at the next corner and drive two more blocks.
a. right
b. rite
c. Wright
d. write
a. right
b. rite
c. Wright
d. write
X
For
___ vacation we plan to visit Kansas
this year.
a. hour
b. our
a. hour
b. our
X
Do you ___ the way to San Jose?
a. know
b. no
a. know
b. no
PREPARING TO TALK
Recent studies show that speaking in front
of a group is by far the greatest fear of most people. It ranks ahead of the
fear of dying, riding in an airplane, or failure in other areas 
of one's personal life.
of one's personal life.
Unless
you are highly unusual, at some time in your life you have talked to a group of
people and your knees began shaking, your voice quivered, your head ached, and
the only dry place on your body was the inside of your mouth. Then the strange
muscle spasms began. One eyelid began to twitch uncontrollably. Your legs felt
like soft rubber. And then it happened: Your memory, on its own and for 
no apparent reason, left you. At
this point you promised yourself that you would never get yourself in this
situation again.
no apparent reason, left you. At
this point you promised yourself that you would never get yourself in this
situation again.
Although the fear of speaking is
common, studies show that one of the most admired qualities in others is their
ability to speak in front of a group. Furthermore, other things being equal,
the person who can communicate ideas clearly will be more successful. The
remainder of this book is directed toward helping you be the kind of speaker
others admire—the kind who gets the job done in every speaking situation.
Types of
Speaking
There are several types of speaking common
in the Air Force. Although most of the same general principles and techniques
apply to all types, there are some differences.
◊ Briefing
The
best military briefings are concise and factual. Their major purpose is to
inform—
tell about a mission, operation, or concept. At times they also direct—enable listeners to perform a procedure or carry out instructions. At other times they advocate or persuade—support a certain solution and lead listeners to accept that solution. For example, a staff officer might want officers at a higher echelon to accept a certain solution. Every good briefing has the virtues of accuracy, brevity, and clarity. These are the ABCs of the briefing. Accuracy and clarity characterize all good speaking, but brevity distinguishes the briefing from other types of speaking. By definition, a briefing is brief, concise, and direct.
tell about a mission, operation, or concept. At times they also direct—enable listeners to perform a procedure or carry out instructions. At other times they advocate or persuade—support a certain solution and lead listeners to accept that solution. For example, a staff officer might want officers at a higher echelon to accept a certain solution. Every good briefing has the virtues of accuracy, brevity, and clarity. These are the ABCs of the briefing. Accuracy and clarity characterize all good speaking, but brevity distinguishes the briefing from other types of speaking. By definition, a briefing is brief, concise, and direct.
◊ Teaching Lecture
Much speaking in the Air Force is directed
toward teaching. The lecture is the method of instruction most often used. As
the name implies, the primary purpose of a teaching lecture is to teach or to
inform students about a given subject. For convenience, teaching
lectures can be divided into the following
types: (1) formal lectures, where the communication is generally one-sided with
no verbal participation by the students, and (2) informal lectures, usually
presented to smaller audiences and allowing for verbal interaction between the
instructor and students.
◊ Speech
A speech generally has one of three basic
purposes: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. The informative speech
is a narration concerning a specific topic but does not involve a sustained
effort to teach. Speeches to civic clubs, orientation talks, and presentations
at commanders' calls are examples of speeches to inform. The persuasive
speech is designed to move an audience to belief or action on some
topic, product, or other matter. Recruiting speeches to high school graduating
classes, budget defenses, and courts-martial summations are all primarily
speeches to persuade. The entertaining speech gives enjoyment to
the audience. The speaker often relies on humor and vivid language as a primary
means of entertaining the listeners. A speech at a dining-out may be a speech
to entertain.
Audience
Talking to hear one's own voice may feed
the ego and even cause self-persuasion, but whatever type of speaking you are
doing, the goal should be to communicate with others. A basic assumption, then,
is that all speaking should be audience-centered. Since speakers have a primary
responsibility of adapting the message to the audiences, they need to know as
much about their audiences as possible.
◊ Audience Analysis
There are two reliable methods for gaining
information about audiences. Used together they can be extremely useful. The
first is to organize information you already have about the audience. Knowing
such variables as age, sex, rank, and experience can help you relate to the
audience. If one or more of these or similar variables separates you from the
audience, you may want to give special attention to ways of emphasizing
similarities and reducing differences.
The second
method, when you have not talked to a particular group before, is to check with
someone who has. Perhaps a friend or colleague has already talked to the same
group and can tell you what to expect. A local civic club regularly interrupts
and heckles guest speakers. Imagine the chagrin of a speaker who is not
familiar with this practice and takes the interruption and heckling personally.
Granted, this audience behavior is a pretty extreme case and may not be the
proper way for an audience to react. Still, it is better to know about such
things before one speaks.◊ Audience Attitude
In the preceding instance, the uninformed
speaker might assume wrongly that the audience was hostile. In some instances,
you may have to face a hostile audience. An extreme example of a speaker facing
a hostile audience is when the President must confront a group of militants on
the White House lawn. In such circumstances, the emotions of the audience are
so great that effective communication becomes very difficult.
Most likely you will never have to speak to
an overly hostile audience, but you may have to speak to one that is mildly hostile
either to you or to your ideas. What can you do? Assuming that you are
determined to be heard and the audience is willing to give you a chance,
hostility can often be overcome. Clearly, your first task as a speaker is to
change the audience attitude—if not to friendliness, then at least to a more
neutral position. Your chances for success are much greater if you somehow
build rapport with your listeners. Often this can be done by using one or more
of the following techniques:
·
Avoid
behaving in a conceited or antagonistic manner.
·
Demonstrate
a genuine concern for your listeners.
·
Exhibit
friendliness and warmth toward your listeners
·
Emphasize
similarities between your listeners and you.
·
Be
honest and straightforward.
·
Use
humor that is in good taste, especially if it is at your own expense.
·
Indicate
your association with people who are held in high esteem by the audience.
·
Do
not let negative, nonverbal aspects of your behavior contradict what you are
saying.
·
Demonstrate
that you are an expert and have done your homework on the subject
·
Refrain
from stating the main idea or conclusion at the outset. Present your facts
first that you and your listeners agree upon, and then build toward your
conclusion.
Most audiences will be friendly. They
consist of people who are, for the most part, favorably disposed toward you as
a speaker. Most people want you to do a good job. Furthermore, they usually are
not in violent disagreement with your point of view. An informative briefing to
other members of your organization, a speech to a local civic club, and a
teaching lecture in the classroom are examples of speaking before friendly
audiences.
◊ Subject
The problem of selecting a subject for a
briefing or teaching lecture does not often arise in the ordinary course of Air
Force business. You will seldom have to look around for something to talk
about. The subjects are implicit in the work of the organization. A staff
briefing, for example, arises from the need to communicate certain subject
matter. A teaching lecture is given to satisfy a particular curriculum need. On
the other hand, a formal speech to persuade, inform, or entertain may provide
you with more latitude in selecting the subject.
◊ Selecting the Subject
On some occasions, the subject of your
speech will be determined—at least partly—by the group. A local civic club, for
instance, may ask you to talk to them about a job, hobby, or community project
you are heading up. At other times. the choice of the subject will be left
entirely up to you. Almost always, however, you will be free to choose the
particular aspect or area of your subject that you wish to emphasize. There are
several questions you can ask yourself about the subject or aspect of the
subject you choose to talk about:
1. Is this the best
subject I can think of? Certainly this is a tough question. But you can answer
it more wisely if you consider a number of subjects. As a rule, a carefully
selected subject or aspect of the subject chosen after some thought will be a
better choice than the ''straw-clutching" effect that characterizes many
searches for suitable subjects.
2. Is this a
subject that I already know something about and can find more? If not, then
perhaps you should search elsewhere. There is no substitute for complete and
authoritative knowledge of the subject.
3. Am I interested
in the subject? If you are not interested in what you will be talking about,
you will find preparation a dull task, and you will have difficulty in
capturing the interest of the audience. Talking about a community service project
on which you have spent many hours or a new program that you have helped
implement on the job is probably much closer to your heart than a subject that
you found while searching through a list of suggested topics.
4. Is the subject
suitable for my audience? Does it fit their intellectual capacity? Is it a
subject that they will be interested in? A subject may be suitable or
interesting to an audience if it vitally concerns their well-being, offers
solutions to a problem they have, is new or timely, or if there is a conflict
of opinion about it.
5. Can the subject
or aspect of the subject be discussed adequately in the time I have? One of the
greatest problems many speakers have is that they fail to narrow their subject.
Because of this problem, they generally do one of two things: (a) they don't
adequately cover the subject, or (b) they talk too long. Both results are bad.
◊ Narrowing the Subject
Some subjects are so broad or complex that
you cannot possibly do justice to them in a single speech. In ten minutes you
cannot tell much about ''Soviet Industry," but perhaps you can adequately
cover "The Iron Industry of the Soviet Union" or ''Steel Production
in the Urals." Speakers often tackle subjects that are too broad. You can
pare a big topic down to size by moving from the general to the specific. The
general and abstract topic "Air Power,'' for example, may be successfully
narrowed to the more concrete and specific "Combat Radius of the B-52.''
Here are the steps followed in limiting this subject:
- Air Power (much too abstract)
- Military Air Power (not much better)
- The Air Force (a beginning in the right direction)
- Strategic Air Command (a little more specific)
- The B-52 (something concrete)
- Combat Radius of the B-52 (a suitable topic)
Limit
your subject in terms of your own interests and qualifications, your listeners'
needs and demands, and the time allotted to your speech.
◊ Choosing a Title
The title is a specific label given to the
speech—an advertising slogan or catchword that catches the spirit of the speech
and tantalizes the potential audience. Generally, the exact phrasing of the
title is not decided until the speech has been built. At other times it may
come to mind as you work on the speech. At still other times it may come early
and guide your planning. An effective title should be relevant, provocative,
and brief.
Listeners do not like to be misled. If the
speech has to do with communication, then some reference to communication
should be in the title. On the other hand, don't include words in the title
merely to get attention if they have no relevance to the speech itself.
"The Eleventh Commandment'' is a relevant title for a speech that
addresses the fact that the commandment of "Thou shall not get
caught" has seemed to replace some of the other commandments. "A Pat
on the Back, A Punch in the Mouth" is certainly a more provocative title
than "How Positive and Negative Reinforcement Affects Our Children."
"You Cannot Not Communicate" is briefer and more provocative than
"The Impossibility of Failing to Communicate."
Although the preceding three titles are all
rather catchy, some-times the direct approach is very effective. Consider the
very descriptive title given earlier, "Combat Radius of the B-52." A
speech or lecture on effective listening might simply be titled ''Effective
Listening.'' Both of these titles are relevant, provocative (due to the subject
matter itself), and brief.
◊ Objectives
The purposes for speaking—informative,
persuasive, entertaining—are important. But the general responses and specific
responses you expect from the talks you give are also significant.
◊ General Responses
The purposes of speaking suggest the
general kinds of responses desired from the audience. An informative
presentation seeks audience understanding. A persuasive presentation seeks a
change in beliefs, attitudes, or behavior. An entertaining presentation seeks
to divert, amuse, or, in some other way, cause listeners to enjoy themselves.
◊ Specific Responses
In addition to the three broad purposes or
aims, there are more specific purposes, sometimes referred to as goals or
objectives, of speaking. An effective oral presentation has immediate and
specific objectives stated in terms of what is expected from the listeners.
These specific objectives fall within the broader purposes of information,
persuasion, or entertainment. The objectives do not state what the speaker is
to do. Rather they tell what the speaker wishes the audience to understand,
believe, feel, do, or enjoy. The following examples illustrate the relationship
between subjects, general purposes, and specific objectives:
1. Subject: From
Iowa to the
Air Force
Purpose: To entertain
Objective: For listeners to enjoy the humor of a young man from lowa
making the transition from an lowa farm to the Air Force
2. Subject: You cannot not communicate
Purpose: To inform
Objective: For listeners to understand that we are constantly
communicating verbally and nonverbally
3. Subject: Equality for all
Purpose: To persuade
Objective: For listeners to dedicate themselves anew to the principle of racial and social equality for all
Purpose: To entertain
Objective: For listeners to enjoy the humor of a young man from lowa
making the transition from an lowa farm to the Air Force
2. Subject: You cannot not communicate
Purpose: To inform
Objective: For listeners to understand that we are constantly
communicating verbally and nonverbally
3. Subject: Equality for all
Purpose: To persuade
Objective: For listeners to dedicate themselves anew to the principle of racial and social equality for all
 |
◊ Gathering Material
With the general purpose and specific
objective in mind, you are ready to gather material on the subject. The source
for this material should be your own experience or the experience of others
gained through conversation, interviews, and written or observed material. You may
often draw from all these sources in a single presentation.
◊ Self
The first step in researching an oral
presenta-
tion is the assembly of all the personal knowledge you have about the subject. A self-inventory may suggest a tentative organization; but, even more important, it will point up gaps in knowledge where you need to do further research.
tion is the assembly of all the personal knowledge you have about the subject. A self-inventory may suggest a tentative organization; but, even more important, it will point up gaps in knowledge where you need to do further research.
◊ Others
The second step in the research process is
to draw on the experience of others. People who are interested in the subject
provide many ideas during the course of conversation. The most fruitful source,
of course, is the expert. Experts help you clarify your thinking, provide
facts, and suggest good sources for further research. Their suggestions for
further sources can enable you to narrow your search without having to
investigate a large bulk of material.
◊ Library
The third step is library research. Modem
libraries provide us with an abundance of sources—books, newspapers, popular
magazines, scholarly journals, abstracts, subject files, microfilms. You must constantly
be concerned with the accuracy and relevance of the material. Using material
printed in 1950 to understand television today would probably lead to
inaccurate, irrelevant conclusions.
◊ Evaluating Material
The next step in the research process is to
evaluate the material gathered. You will probably find that you have enough
material for several presentations. If you haven't already begun to organize
the presentation, you will want to do so. Next you will want to select the best
kinds of support for the points you wish to make. Then you will want to prepare
a good beginning and ending for the talk.
Talking about your background
- Originally I’m from….
- I was (born and) brought up in…
- I come from a (sporty/musical) family.
- My proudest moment was…-ing
- I’ve always dreamt of –ing/ wanted to +verb
Describing your language ability
- I’m fluent in Polish.
- I speak Spanish reasonably well.
- I can get by in Portuguese.
- I speak French but it is a bit rusty.
- I know a few words of Japanese.
- I wish I could speak Italian.
like, such as, and that sort of thing
- I like music such as opera, choral music, and classical music.
- I really love modern music like house, rap, reggae, and hip hop.
After one or two examples, we can use an expression
meaning ‘et cetera’.
- I’m fond of opera, and that sort of thing.
- I like jazz, rock, and that sort of thing.
Showing a lot of interest
- Wow!
- Really?
- (That’s) interesting!
- (That’s) fantastic
Asking Turns in Conversations
English hesitation
strategies
Directing conversations
Look at these expressions for directing
conversation in a formal situation, like a business meeting. Put them into
three groups:
A including quiet people
B stopping interruptions
C keeping the conversation to the point
A including quiet people
B stopping interruptions
C keeping the conversation to the point
- What’s your opinion, Sam?
- May I continue?
- Let me finish.
- Shall we continue?
- Let’s go back to the point.
- You haven’t said anything yet, Sam.
- Do you want to add anything here?
- I haven’t finished my point.
- Please allow me to finish.
- Does anyone want to say anything before we move on?
Control strategies
Conversation
is a turn-taking process and it is more difficult when there are several people
in a conversation. In different cultures there are different standards for
interrupting and turn-taking, however there are also a few universal points that
apply to most situations.
.
.
- The speaker can choose the next speaker. You can stop someone dominating the conversation, and you can include quieter people.
- You can stop someone interrupting by avoiding eye contact with them, and continuing eye contact with your partner in the conversation. Don’t drop the volume of your speech (i.e. don’t begin to speak more quietly).
- If someone interrupts you, and you haven’t finished making your point, tell them clearly. You can use phrases like:
Excuse me, I haven’t finished.
Just a moment / Hang on a second.
- When someone won’t stop talking, and you are not interested in what they are saying, you can avoid eye contact, turn away or look at something else. Do not use conversation fillers.
Basic Debating Skills.
Once more unto the
breach, dear friends, once more;
Or close the wall up with our English dead.
In peace there's nothing so becomes a man
As modest stillness and humility:
But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
You know your places: God be with you all!
Or close the wall up with our English dead.
In peace there's nothing so becomes a man
As modest stillness and humility:
But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
You know your places: God be with you all!
A debate is,
basically, an argument. That is not to say that it is an undisciplined shouting
match between parties that passionately believe in a particular point of view.
In fact the opposite is true. Debating has strict rules of conduct and quite
sophisticated arguing techniques and you will often be in a position where you
will have to argue the opposite of what you believe in.
Easier - A debate is a
discussion between sides with different views. Persons speak for or against
something before making a decision.
Harder - Two thousand
years ago, citizens of Athens
held regularly scheduled public assemblies. Peoples' votes determined the
policies and actions of the state. Citizens decided whether Athens went to war and how it fought. They
created the laws that impacted their daily life. But the votes were always
preceded by debates where citizens and leaders argued about the right choices,
what was morally and legally right, the best way to achieve a desired outcome,
and what was possible and prudent.
Debates are a means
of encouraging critical thinking, personal expression, and tolerance of others'
opinions. Today, debate still remains essential to democracy. Debates are
conducted in governing assemblies, held in lecture halls and public arenas,
presented in schools and universities, written in newspaper and magazine
columns, heard on radio, or seen on the television. Like our predecessors in
ancient Greece,
people argue about what is best for their societies and shape the course of
law, policy, and action.
If a debate is a form of argument then it
logically follows that there must be something to argue about. This is called
the TOPIC. The topic changes from debate to debate. They are often about
current issues of public importance ("That Canberra should have self
government") or about general philosophies or ideas ("That beauty is
better than brains"). All topics begin with the word "That". As
in other arguments there are two sides to any topic. The team that agrees with
the topic is called the AFFIRMATIVE (or the `government' in parliamentary
debating) and the team that disagrees with the topic is called the NEGATIVE (or
the `opposition' in parliamentary debating). When organizing a debate it is
important to select a topic that is appropriate to the age and education of the
debaters concerned. Often topics will cover areas that the debaters have a
specific interest in or, in the case of schools debates, that have been covered
in classes or are current news items.
If
a debate is going to take place then it must be agreed in advance what the
debate is going to be about. Thus it must be agreed what the topic means. This
may seem obvious in a topic like "That Canberra should have self
government" but with something like "That a cabbage is better than a
rose" is might not be so clear. Deciding and explaining what a topic means
is called `defining the topic'. The job of defining begins with the
AFFIRMATIVE. The first speaker of the affirmative must explain in clear terms
what they believe the topic means. In deciding this affirmative team should
always try to use the "person on the street" test. That is if this
topic were presented to the average person on the street - is this what they
would take it to mean. Where the topic is too obscure to allow this test then
apply the `reasonability' test. The affirmative team should ask themselves
"Is this definition reasonable? Is it something the average person might
expect? Does it allow for both sides of the debate?". If you can answer
yes to these questions then the definition is probably reasonable, if not
search for something more reasonable. Try to avoid the dictionary, except in
cases where you don't understand a word. In your definition explain the meaning
of the whole topic rather than each separate word.
The negative team may agree with or choose
to challenge the definition presented. The negative team should be very careful
about challenging as it is difficult to continue the debate with two
definitions. Challenges may be made if the definition given is unreasonable or
if it defines the opposition out of the debate. If the negative team chooses to
challenge the definition it should be done by the first speaker who should
clearly outline why the negative is challenging and then propose a better
definition.
Because debating is a team event it is
important that the three speakers work together as a team. The TEAM LINE is the
basic statement of "why the topic is true" (for the affirmative) and
"why the topic is false" (for the negative). It should be a short
sentence, presented by the first speaker of each team and used by the other two
speakers to enforce the idea of teamwork.
In
a debating team each speaker has specified roles that they must fulfill to play
their part in the team. They are laid out below in the order that the speakers
will speak.
1st Affirmative must:
·
define
the topic.
·
present
the affirmative's team line.
·
outline
briefly what each speaker in their team will talk about.
·
present
the first half of the affirmative case.
1st negative must:
·
accept
or reject the definition. If you don't do this it is assumed that you accept
the definition.
·
present
the negative team line.
·
outline
briefly what each of the negative speakers will say.
·
rebut
a few of the main points of the first affirmative speaker.
·
The
1st negative should spend about one quarter of their time rebutting.
·
present
the first half of the negative team's case.
2nd affirmative must:
o
reaffirm
the affirmative’s team line.
o
rebut
the main points presented by the 1st negative.
o
the
2nd affirmative should spend about one third of their time rebutting.
o
present
the second half of the affirmative's case.
2nd negative must:
·
reaffirm
the negative's team line.
·
rebut
some of the main points of the affirmative's case.
·
the
2nd negative should spend about one third of their time rebutting.
·
present
the second half of the negative's case.
3rd affirmative must:
·
reaffirm
the affirmative's team line.
·
rebut
all the remaining points of the negative's case.
·
The
3rd affirmative should spend about two thirds to three quarters of their time
rebutting.
·
present
a summary of the affirmative's case.
-
Round off the debate for the affirmative.
3rd negative must:
·
reaffirm
the negative's team line.
·
rebut
all the remaining points of the affirmative's case.
·
the
3rd negative should spend about two thirds to three quarters of their time
rebutting.
·
present
a summary of the negative's case.
·
round
off the debate for the negative.
Neither
third speaker may introduce any new parts of their team's cases.
In debating each team will present points
in favour of their case. They will also spend some time criticising the
arguments presented by the other team. This is called rebuttal. There are a few
things to remember about rebuttal.
1. Logic - to say that the other side is wrong is not
enough. You have to show why the other side is wrong. This is best done by
taking a main point of the other side's argument and showing that it does not
make sense. Because a lot of the thinking for this needs to be done quickly
this is one of the most challenging and enjoyable aspects of debating.
2. Pick the important points - try to rebut the
most important points of the other side's case. You will find that after a
while these are easier and easier to spot. One obvious spot to find them is
when the first speaker of the other team outlines briefly what the rest of the
team will say. But do not rebut those points until after they have actually
been presented by the other team.
3. `Play the ball' - do not criticize the individual
speakers, criticize what they say. To call someone fat, ugly or a nerd does not
make what they say wrong and it will also lose you marks.
There
are many techniques that each speaker can use in their speech but there are
three main areas that you will be marked on and they are matter, method and
manner.
Matter
is what you say; it is the substance of your speech. You should divide your
matter into arguments and examples.
An
argument is a statement "The topic is true (or false depending on which
side you are on) because of x", where the argument fills in for the x .
For example in the topic "That the zoos should be closed" an argument
may be: "the zoos should be closed because they confine the animals in an
unnatural environment".
An
example is a fact or piece of evidence which supports an argument. If
our argument is: "that zoos should be closed because they confine the
animals in an unnatural environment" then an example might be: "that
in the lion cage at Taronga Park Zoo in Sydney the animals only have about 200
square meters where in the wild they would have 2000 square kilometers to roam
in.".
Any
examples that you use should be relevant to the topic at hand. Examples
which have very little or nothing to do with the topic only make a speech look
weak and lacking substance.
Matter cannot be just a long list of
examples. You do not win a debate by creating the biggest pile of facts. Facts
are like bricks in a wall, if you don't use them, cement them together properly
then they are useless. Similarly you cannot win a debate solely by proving that
some of the facts of the opposition are wrong. It may weaken their case a
little, the same way that removing some of the bricks from a wall will, but you
really need to attack the main arguments that the other side presents to bring
the whole wall crashing down.
Many
debates are on currently important issues so it is good for any debater to keep
themselves informed of what is happening in the world around them and what are
the issues involved. Watching the news helps (but watch a credible broadcast
like the ABC , you are hardly likely to get a topic on some heartwarming story
about a lost cat in western Sydney) as does reading a good paper or periodical
like the Canberra Times or the Sydney Morning Herald.
Where
matter is what you say method is how you organize what you say. There are many
delicious pieces of the method pie; here are a few tantalizing crumbs.......
1. TEAM.
Good team method involves unity and logic.
Unity is created by all members being aware of the definition, what the other
speakers have said and what the team line is. Each member of the team needs to
reinforce the team line and be consistent with what has already been said and
what will be said by the other members of their team. You may as well shoot
yourself in the foot as change the team line mid debate just because you think
it isn't working. Your team will look poorly organized and will be severely
penalized by the adjudicator.
2. INDIVIDUAL.
You must structure your own speech well.
The first step is to have a clear idea of your own arguments and which examples
you will be using to support those arguments. As you speak make a clear
division between arguments and let the audience know when you are moving from
one argument to the next, this is called sign posting and is a very important
debating tool. The key thing to remember is that although you know exactly what
you are saying the audience has never heard it before and will only hear it
once so you have to be very clear about it.
When
you are presenting one particular argument make sure that the argument is
logical (makes sense) and that you make clear links between your team line and
the argument, and between the argument and the examples that you will use to
support it.
Rebuttal
should be organized the same way. Attack each argument that the opposition
presents in turn. Spend a little while on each and then move on to the next.
That way the other team's case is completely demolished.
Also
organize your speech well in terms of time. Adjudicators can pick up when you
are waffling just to fill in time .... and can see when you've spent too long
on one point and then have to rush through all your other points and rebuttal
just to finish your speech in time. Whew!! You will probably make a few
mistakes with this early on but practice makes perfect.
Manner
is how you present what you say and there are various aspects of manner that
you need to be aware of. There is no one prescribed way of presenting your
argument. It is not true, no matter what Paul Keating thinks, that the best way
of being convincing is to shout and thump on the table. The best advice you can
get is to develop a manner style that is natural to you. Here are some tips and
pointers.
1. CUE CARDS.
Do
not write out your speech on cue cards. There is even a current, and indeed
deplorable, trend towards computer generated cue cards. Debating is an exercise
in lively interaction between two teams and between the teams and the audience,
not in reading a speech. Use cue cards the same way you would use a prompt it a
play, they are there for reference if you lose your spot. You can tell when
someone is reading.. remember the television announcements by the politicians
in the recent ACT elections?
2 EYE CONTACT.
Is
very closely related to cue cards. If you look at the audience you will hold
their attention. If you spend your time reading from cue cards or looking at a
point just above the audience's head they will lose concentration very quickly.
When you've got them by the eyeballs their hearts and minds will follow.
3 VOICE
There
are many things you can do with your voice to make it effective. You must
project so that you can be heard but 4 minutes of constant shouting will become
very annoying very quickly. (Like a butcher shouting out the daily specials). Use
volume, pitch and speed to emphasize important points in your speech. A sudden
loud burst will grab your audience's attention while a period of quiet speaking
can draw your audience in and make them listen carefully.
4. BODY.
"Work it baby, work it!". (Although
any other links between the movie Pretty Woman and debating end here ! Your
body is a tool for you to use. Make hand gestures deliberately and with
confidence (a fine example of someone who can't is that idiot on the Canberra
Toyota ads at the moment). Move your head and upper body to maintain eye
contact with all members of the audience (although automatically moving your
head from side to side makes the adjudicator want to pop a ping-pong ball in
there). If you want to walk up and down do so but move with effect and
deliberately, don't wear worry lines into the carpet. If you are going to stand
still, stand with confidence. Don't let your body apologize for your presence
by appearing nervous.
5. NERVOUS HABITS.
Avoid
them like the plague. Playing with your cue cards, pulling on a stray strand of
hair, fiddling with your watch, bouncing up and down on the balls of your feet
or bouncing your cue cards off the nose of the nearest audience member as you
are finished with them only distracts from your presentation. Use your whole
person to effect, don't let any one thing detract from your ability to persuade
the audience.
6. ELOCUTION AND
OTHER BIG WORDS.
This
is not an exercise in grammar or elocution. Try to avoid being too informal but
don't go overboard the other way. There are no marks to be gained from trying
to use big words you don't understand or can't pronounce. In the same way it is
a huge mistake to let someone else writes your speech. People that do that
aren't entering the spirit or developing the skills of debating and end up
looking really silly getting stuck on a word they just can't say.
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